C Angle Canine Detection of Colatileome a Review of Implications for Pathogen and Disease Detection
Health Secur. November 2021; xix(6): 633–641.
Routine Decontamination of Working Canines: A Study on the Removal of Superficial Gross Contagion
Seneca L. Bessling
Seneca L. Bessling, MS, is a Molecular Biologist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Sarah Fifty. Grady, PhD, is a Senior Research Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Elizabeth C. Corson, MS, is a Senior Image Annotator, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Veronica A. Schilling is an Intern Enquiry Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Natalie G. Sebeck, MS, is a Microbiologist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Jennifer H. Therkorn, PhD, is a Senior Droplets Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Bryan R. Brensinger is an Image Analyst/Molecular Biologist, Research and Exploratory Development Department; and Karen L. Meidenbauer, DVM, MPH, is Projection Manager/Senior Veterinarian, Asymmetric Operations Sector; all at the Johns Hopkins University Practical Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD.
Sarah L. Grady
Seneca L. Bessling, MS, is a Molecular Biologist, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Sarah Fifty. Grady, PhD, is a Senior Enquiry Scientist, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Elizabeth C. Corson, MS, is a Senior Paradigm Annotator, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Veronica A. Schilling is an Intern Research Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Natalie M. Sebeck, MS, is a Microbiologist, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Jennifer H. Therkorn, PhD, is a Senior Aerosol Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Bryan R. Brensinger is an Image Analyst/Molecular Biologist, Research and Exploratory Development Department; and Karen 50. Meidenbauer, DVM, MPH, is Projection Manager/Senior Veterinary, Asymmetric Operations Sector; all at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD.
Elizabeth C. Corson
Seneca L. Bessling, MS, is a Molecular Biologist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Sarah L. Grady, PhD, is a Senior Research Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Elizabeth C. Corson, MS, is a Senior Image Annotator, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Veronica A. Schilling is an Intern Research Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Natalie M. Sebeck, MS, is a Microbiologist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Jennifer H. Therkorn, PhD, is a Senior Droplets Scientist, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Bryan R. Brensinger is an Image Analyst/Molecular Biologist, Research and Exploratory Development Section; and Karen L. Meidenbauer, DVM, MPH, is Project Managing director/Senior Veterinarian, Asymmetric Operations Sector; all at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, Medico.
Veronica A. Schilling
Seneca L. Bessling, MS, is a Molecular Biologist, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Sarah Fifty. Grady, PhD, is a Senior Inquiry Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Elizabeth C. Corson, MS, is a Senior Prototype Analyst, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Veronica A. Schilling is an Intern Research Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Natalie Grand. Sebeck, MS, is a Microbiologist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Jennifer H. Therkorn, PhD, is a Senior Aerosol Scientist, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Bryan R. Brensinger is an Image Analyst/Molecular Biologist, Research and Exploratory Development Department; and Karen L. Meidenbauer, DVM, MPH, is Project Managing director/Senior Veterinarian, Disproportionate Operations Sector; all at the Johns Hopkins Academy Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD.
Natalie M. Sebeck
Seneca L. Bessling, MS, is a Molecular Biologist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Sarah Fifty. Grady, PhD, is a Senior Research Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Elizabeth C. Corson, MS, is a Senior Image Annotator, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Veronica A. Schilling is an Intern Research Scientist, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Natalie M. Sebeck, MS, is a Microbiologist, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Jennifer H. Therkorn, PhD, is a Senior Droplets Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Bryan R. Brensinger is an Image Annotator/Molecular Biologist, Research and Exploratory Development Section; and Karen L. Meidenbauer, DVM, MPH, is Project Director/Senior Veterinarian, Asymmetric Operations Sector; all at the Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, Doctor.
Jennifer H. Therkorn
Seneca L. Bessling, MS, is a Molecular Biologist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Sarah L. Grady, PhD, is a Senior Research Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Elizabeth C. Corson, MS, is a Senior Image Annotator, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Veronica A. Schilling is an Intern Inquiry Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Natalie Chiliad. Sebeck, MS, is a Microbiologist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Jennifer H. Therkorn, PhD, is a Senior Aerosol Scientist, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Bryan R. Brensinger is an Prototype Analyst/Molecular Biologist, Research and Exploratory Development Section; and Karen L. Meidenbauer, DVM, MPH, is Projection Director/Senior Veterinarian, Asymmetric Operations Sector; all at the Johns Hopkins Academy Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, MD.
Bryan R. Brensinger
Seneca Fifty. Bessling, MS, is a Molecular Biologist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Sarah Fifty. Grady, PhD, is a Senior Research Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Elizabeth C. Corson, MS, is a Senior Paradigm Analyst, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Veronica A. Schilling is an Intern Research Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Natalie M. Sebeck, MS, is a Microbiologist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Jennifer H. Therkorn, PhD, is a Senior Aerosol Scientist, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Bryan R. Brensinger is an Paradigm Annotator/Molecular Biologist, Enquiry and Exploratory Development Department; and Karen 50. Meidenbauer, DVM, MPH, is Projection Director/Senior Veterinarian, Asymmetric Operations Sector; all at the Johns Hopkins University Practical Physics Laboratory, Laurel, Doc.
Karen 50. Meidenbauer
Seneca L. Bessling, MS, is a Molecular Biologist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Sarah Fifty. Grady, PhD, is a Senior Research Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Elizabeth C. Corson, MS, is a Senior Epitome Analyst, Disproportionate Operations Sector; Veronica A. Schilling is an Intern Enquiry Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Natalie Thousand. Sebeck, MS, is a Microbiologist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Jennifer H. Therkorn, PhD, is a Senior Droplets Scientist, Asymmetric Operations Sector; Bryan R. Brensinger is an Prototype Analyst/Molecular Biologist, Research and Exploratory Development Department; and Karen L. Meidenbauer, DVM, MPH, is Project Manager/Senior Veterinarian, Asymmetric Operations Sector; all at the Johns Hopkins Academy Applied Physics Laboratory, Laurel, Md.
Received Manuscript received March xvi, 2021; Revised revision returned July sixteen, 2021; Accepted accepted for publication Baronial x, 2021.
Abstract
Odor detection canines are a valuable resources used by multiple agencies for the sensitive detection of explosives, narcotics, firearms, agronomical products, and even human bodies. These canines and their handlers are ofttimes deployed to pathogen-contaminated environments or to work in close proximity with potentially sick individuals. Advisable decontamination protocols must be established to mitigate both canine and handler exposure in these scenarios. Despite this potential hazard, extremely limited guidance is available on routine canine decontamination from pathogenic biological materials. In this commodity, nosotros evaluate the power of several commercial off-the-shelf cleansing products, used in wipe course, to remove superficial contagion from fur, canine equipment, and toys. Using Glo Germ MIST equally a proxy for biological contamination, our analysis demonstrated more than a 90% average reduction in contagion after wiping with a Nolvasan scrub solution, 0.5% chlorhexidine solution, or lxx% isopropyl alcohol. Wiping with nondisinfectant baby wipes or water yielded an almost 80% average removal of contaminant from all surfaces. Additionally, researchers used Gwet's AC2 measurement to assess interrater reliability, which demonstrated substantial agreement (P < .001). These data provide primal insights toward the development of a rapid, user-friendly, and fieldable alternative to traditional water-intensive bathing of working canines.
Keywords: Working canines, Decontamination, First responders, Veterinary medicine
Introduction
For many years, aroma detection canines have been used to identify a wide variety of scents, including those related to explosives, narcotics, agricultural products, and human bodies.i-3 In many of these scenarios, no single slice of equipment has proven as precise and/or equally mobile every bit a canine. More recently, a subset of odour detection canines has too been trained to rapidly observe the scent signatures of diseases like diabetes, bacterial infection, and certain types of cancer.iv-6 As a issue of these successful forays into the medical field, the employ of odor detection canines as a potential screening tool during the SARS-CoV-2 pandemic has garnered substantial attention. Deploying canines to potentially contaminated environments, nonetheless, increases the hazard of pathogen exposure to both the canine and handler.7,8 While the U.s. Centers for Affliction Control and Prevention currently considers canines to be at depression risk of dog-to-human manual of SARS-CoV-2, there remains a business concern that contaminated surfaces, equipment, or fur may still act equally fomites to transfer other bacterial, fungal, or viral pathogens.9-12 To decrease the risk of secondary infection for both canines and handlers across all canine disciplines, appropriate decontamination protocols for the animal and its associated operational equipment must be established.
At this fourth dimension, information about routine canine decontamination is extremely limited. Existing guidance in this space predominantly focuses on "one-off" cleaning procedures following exposures in emergency environments.13-15 As total bathing of a canine after every shift is logistically burdensome, can pb to damage of fur and peel and could cause further handler exposure to pathogenic material, other approaches need to be considered. Soldiers usually use wipe-down strategies to remove gross contagion in the field, which represents an appealing and practical culling to total bathing for canines.16 Here, we aim to identify an effective wipe-based protocol for routine decontamination of canines and their equipment using commercial off-the-shelf cleansing products. This protocol should subtract the risk of affliction transmission and/or adverse health furnishings to canine–handler teams while maintaining operational deployment capabilities. We envision that this try will inform the evolution of an effective canine decontamination methodology that can be applied across multiple aroma detection canine fields, improving responses to electric current and emerging threats.
Materials and Methods
Tested Surfaces
For the purposes of this piece of work, the term "coupon" is used to refer to minor sections of each surface material cut from the corresponding full-sized items. To minimize risk to living animals, maintain sterile conditions, and better standardization across trials, full-sized coyote pelts (Paulette Fur Company) served as a proxy for domestic canine fur. Equally canine dorsal, flank, and ventral fur differs in texture and thickness, half dozen.iv cm × 15.2 cm coupons were cut so every bit to include all 3 regions (see Figure 1).
Representation of coyote pelt.
TSA Handler Kits (Ray Allen Manufacturing, SKU RAM-K-TSA-2H) included 3 master components: dog harness, nylon collar, and leather leash. Harnesses were cutting into 5.1 cm × 10.ii cm coupons that included a section of Velcro, armed forces standard woven nylon webbing, and nylon straps. Leashes were cutting into 10.2 cm coupons and the "polish" and "rough" sides were tested separately. Collars were cutting into ten.ii cm coupons with no alterations to width. Tennis balls (Tranquility Glides, precut, gray, model T34GRY20) and KONG Classic dog toys (The KONG Company, item 53352) were cut in half lengthwise. Dummy bumpers (SportDOG, model SAC00-11672) were cutting in half lengthwise and the white ends were removed to reduce autofluorescence during imaging. Examples of each toy and equipment coupon type are included in Figure 2. All coupons were used once and so discarded.
Representation of tested materials: (a) collar, (b) harness, (c) smooth side of the leash, (d) crude side of the leash, (east) KONG, (f) tennis brawl, and (thou) bumper.
Cleansers and Wipes
Candidate cleansers were selected from a big number of candidates for testing based on safety, accessibility, antimicrobial/antiviral activity, and previous success in canine decontamination experiments.fourteen Cleansers were included in the study only if they were labeled every bit safe for topical use on canines or usually recognized as safety across the veterinary community. Deionized h2o (Milli-Q H2o System) and perfume-gratis, h2o-based sensitive baby wipes (Pampers) were included as nondisinfectant solutions. Disinfectant solutions selected were: 70% isopropyl alcohol (Equate, model {"type":"entrez-nucleotide","attrs":{"text":"FG003032","term_id":"184148741","term_text":"FG003032"}}FG003032), Nolvasan two% chlorhexidine acetate surgical scrub (Zoetis, product 1NOL411, diluted 1:4 in deionized water), 2% chlorhexidine gluconate solution (Durvet, NDC 30798-624-35, diluted 1:4 in deionized h2o), and Betadine 7.5% povidone-iodine surgical scrub (Purdue Frederick, item 25452, diluted one:four in deionized water). Diluted 6.15% sodium hypochlorite solution (household bleach) is an effective pathogen decontaminant and has previously been shown to be prophylactic for topical employ on canines, but tin can cause potential canine nose blindness.17,eighteen For this reason, it was not considered in this written report. Afterward initial trials, Betadine was removed from the report considering (1) the nighttime dark-brown color of the solution masked the fluorescence emitted past the contaminant, and (2) it left a tacky brown residue on all surfaces, making information technology an impractical selection for daily use in the field. All other disinfectant solutions were shown to not attenuate fluorescence at a 1:one ratio of Glo Germ, used to simulate the spread of bacteria, to disinfectant.
Several strategies were considered for application of cleansing solutions. For fur, options included full bathing, depression water bathing with a scrub brush, wet vacuum grooming, and general wiping. For equipment and toy cleaning, options included soaking in disinfectant solution, dishwasher or washing machine treatment, spraying surfaces with disinfectant solution, and full general wiping. After evaluating all electric current recommendations, researchers selected wiping equally the most promising strategy to pursue because of the low logistical burden and the ability of cleansing wipes to be used on all surfaces. Disposable soft-spun dry fabric wipes (Medline, Ultrasoft, model ULTRASOFT1013) were used for all experiments.
Chambers
Circular, 7.6 cm diameter holes were cut into the bottom of blackness plastic buckets (US Plastic Corporation, 3.5-gallon volume, item 1934) to construct contagion and imaging chambers. The inner edges of imaging chambers were lined with flexible UV Black Lite Strips (Onforu, model ON-DT46-UV-Us-NF) and laboratory record marked the position of a cell telephone camera. Black matte construction newspaper was placed nether the imaging chamber to serve equally a dark background for photos and to prevent UV light reflection. A 2nd, shorter contamination chamber (Rubbermaid 9-cup food storage, ASIN B008HP7L1G) was created for the fur coupons to enable more concentrated awarding of contaminant. Representative images of the chambers are shown in Effigy 3.
Imaging and contamination chambers: (a) external view of imaging chamber with telephone in position, (b) interior of imaging chamber, (c) thirty.v cm acme contamination sleeping room, and (d) viii.ane cm height contagion sleeping room.
Contamination Simulant
Glo Germ MIST (Glo Germ Company, item RFMST) was selected due to its previous use as a superficial pathogen simulant in aerosol studies.21-27 Fine mist spray bottles (Cosywell, 100 mL, ASIN B07R6KGRSW) filled with Glo Germ MIST solution were used to mimic aerosols produced past a cough or sneeze.19,20 The proprietary Glo Germ solution does non provide specific information on all the constituents of the product, nor the specific fluorophore. For all canine toy and equipment coupons, the bottle was vigorously shaken and ii sprays were applied from the hole at the acme of a thirty.5 cm tall contamination sleeping room (Figure 3c). After a 5-minute settling and 10-minute drying fourth dimension, coupons were removed from the contamination chamber, transferred to the imaging chamber, and imaged before wipe decontamination.
Initial trials indicated that 2 sprays of Glo Germ MIST were not sufficient for fur coupon experiments, as color variation on the pelts caused bug during paradigm analysis. After, ix sprays were used on all fur coupons and applied using a shorter, 8.1 cm tall contamination sleeping accommodation (Figure 3d). After a 5-minute settling period, the fur coupons were removed from the contamination chamber, assault a flat table, and dried for one.5 hours with a modest desk fan positioned beyond the table approximately 60.0 cm away from the coupons.
Droplet Size Distribution
The spray released from the fine mist spray bottle was characterized using the Spraytec particle and droplet sizer (Malvern Panalytical Ltd, model STP5342). The spray bottle was placed either 5.0 cm or 30.5 cm from the axle path and sprayed 4 to 5 times in quick succession. Data were reported equally the fraction of total spray volume falling within each of 60 droplet size bins across a range of 0.i ÎĽm through 900 ÎĽm at a time interval of 0.4 milliseconds (Figure iv). The droplet volume for each bin was divided by bin width, and droplet size distributions were generated for each spray event. Additionally, the book produced by each spray from the bottle was measured volumetrically by spraying the bottle 10 times and measuring the volume discharged after each spray.
Size distribution of Glo Germ droplets produced past the Cosywell fine mist spray bottle. Droplets were sprayed at a distance of 5.0 cm or 30.5 cm from the Malvern Spraytec detector beam. Error bars stand for standard difference following iv to v sprays at each altitude.
Decontamination
A 500 mL volume of each cleanser was placed in a plastic container and 25 wipes were added to the same container immediately before each trial, assuasive for complete absorption of the liquid. Coupons contaminated with Glo Germ were placed confront up on a clean absorbent pad and wiped, using moderate pressure, with 1 side of a make clean wipe. The same researcher wiped all coupons to maintain consistency in pressure and arroyo. A standardized protocol was developed for each coupon type: (1) fur – a single downwards wipe in the management of the hair; (2) harness, leash, and neckband – a unmarried wipe, left to right, from i short edge of the coupon to the other; (three) lawn tennis ball – a single wipe effectually the halved brawl; (4) KONG toy – a single wipe from the smaller to larger diameter portion of the halved toy; and (5) bumper – a single wipe down the length of the halved toy, with special attention paid to the spaces between knobby protrusions. Following the initial wipe of all coupon types, the muddy side of each wipe was folded in on itself and the coupons were wiped once more than using the clean side.
Imaging
Researchers used the ProShot application on an iPhone XR to photograph a series of iii images of each coupon. Images were captured before and after contamination, and afterward decontamination. The aforementioned focal aeroplane, ISO, discontinuity, and shutter speed were used across all trials of the same coupon type. Images were imported and analyzed in Fiji, a biological image analysis platform based on ImageJ, originally developed by the National Institutes of Health.28,29 The three images for each coupon were cropped to include only the region that underwent wiping and and then compiled into a single stack. Analysis was performed using previously described methods and from ImageJ documentation.30,31 Each image inside a stack was converted from colour to eight-bit to enable threshold option. Thresholds were selected to minimize the background fluorescence of precontamination images while maximizing the Glo Germ-based fluorescence in postcontamination and postdecontamination images. The aforementioned threshold was practical to all images in a stack. Images were then converted to binary blackness and white images, and fluorescent expanse (in cmii) and fluorescent particle counts were calculated using Fiji'southward Analyze Particles feature.
For each stack, postcontamination and postdecontamination values were normalized to the precontamination values. The reduction in fluorescence was reported every bit percentage of fluorescent area removed, calculated with the following equation:
For all trials, 2 team members independently selected thresholds and analyzed all images. The final reported results represent the boilerplate across these analyses. Fluorescence reduction ratings were divided into 5 quantiles: 0 to twenty%, 21 to 40%, 41 to 60%, 61 to 80%, and 81 to 100%. Interrater understanding of category assignment was assessed using a linearly weighted Gwet's AC2 coefficient.32 Fluorescence reduction ratings were imported into R version iv.0.5 (R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna, Austria), and the Gwet'south AC2 coefficient was evaluated using the irrCAC packet.33
Results
Droplet Size Distributions
To determine whether Glo Germ MIST dispersal from an off-the-shelf spray bottle accurately recapitulated droplet sizes from homo sneezes and coughs, a Malvern Panalytical Spraytec was used to mensurate droplet size distribution.34 The spray bottle consistently produced a bimodal distribution of droplets, although actual droplet volumes varied based on the distance from the instrument. The smaller droplet mode peaked at diameters of 0.4 ÎĽm and 0.8 ÎĽm when sprayed v.0 cm and thirty.5 cm from the detector, respectively. The smaller diameter droplet manner did not appear in every spray from xxx.5 cm, likely due to evaporation before contact with the detector. The larger droplet modes showed wider peaks, ranging from forty ÎĽm to 70 ÎĽm at the closer altitude and seventy ÎĽm to 200 ÎĽm at the further altitude. Previous Spraytec data has shown that 97% of the droplets produced by a human cough were smaller than 1 ÎĽm in bore, with a mode of 0.3 ÎĽm, when initiated 17 cm from the detector.35 This submicron droplet population is similar to the smaller fashion produced past the fine mist spray bottle. Assay of droplet size in human sneezes, likewise using the Spraytec, establish both unimodal and bimodal book distributions.36 In bimodal sneezes initiated five cm from the detector, the most frequently observed droplets had diameters betwixt 73.6 ÎĽm and 85.viii ÎĽm. This population overlaps with the larger diameter mode produced past the spray canteen. Together, these data suggested that the Glo Germ aerosol produced by the spray bottle in these experiments closely correspond the droplets produced by man coughs and sneezes in size and distribution.
Each spray released an average volume of 208.iv ÎĽL with a standard divergence of 0.516. The droplet size distribution practical to this spray book produces approximately three.0 x 10v aerosol per spray at both distances with a mass median diameter of 0.637 ÎĽm for the ii-inch distance and viii.5 ÎĽm for the 12-inch distance.
Reduction in Fluorescence
To make up one's mind how best to remove gross superficial contamination from surfaces, coupons were sprayed twice with Glo Germ from a distance of 30.5 cm. After a 10-minute drying period, coupons were wiped twice with 1 of 5 solutions, equally detailed in the Materials and Methods section. Special considerations were necessary for fur coupons, as individual pelts had differences in background fluorescence due to color variation. To mitigate these issues, researchers: (1) selected pelts based on consequent coloring, (two) increased the density of Glo Germ by applying 9 sprays from a distance of eight.i cm, and (3) air-dried the wiped pelts before postdecontamination imaging. We found no difference in removal across the different fur samples based on region of the pelt used.
Each coupon was documented with a photo earlier and after contagion, and after decontamination. Groundwork fluorescence thresholds were maintained across each coupon, and black and white images were used to determine the reduction in fluorescence post-obit wiping. Figure five shows sample images of a leash coupon following handling with a chlorhexidine wipe and Figure six shows sample images of a fur coupon following treatment with a water wipe. For all trials, two team members blinded to the contamination procedure individually processed the images.
Contagion and decontamination of the smoothen side of the leash with a chlorhexidine wipe. Images a, b, and c are earlier black and white conversion. Boxes a and d represent precontamination command images, b and e stand for postcontamination images, and c and f represent postdecontamination images.
Fur contagion and decontamination with a water wipe. Images a, b, and c are earlier black and white conversion. Boxes a and d represent precontamination control images, b and eastward represent postcontamination images, and c and f represent postdecontamination images.
The functioning of all wipe solutions on all surfaces, as measured by percentage reduction in fluorescence, is shown in Figure 7. An average 86.1% of fluorescence was removed from surfaces following any wiping action, suggesting that this general strategy is an effective option for removal of gross surface contamination. Unsurprisingly, actual Glo Germ removal efficiencies varied between surfaces, with the more porous surfaces (ie, fur, tennis assurance, and the soft side of the ternion) proving more hard to decontaminate. When all surfaces were considered, wiping with the 0.five% chlorhexidine solution provided the best option for gross decontamination, yielding 91.4% removal efficiency.
Efficacy of wiping across all coupon types, measured equally a percent reduction in fluorescence. N = 3 for neckband, bumper, tennis brawl, harness, ternion (side one and ii), KONG, and N = 5 for fur. Fault bars represent standard departure.
Interrater agreement was assessed using Gwet'south AC2 coefficient using linear weights. This analysis was performed separately for fur samples and the equipment samples due to the high variability associated with the fur trials. For fur, 87.0% agreement was achieved (95% CI, 77.four% to 96.v%; P < .001). For the equipment samples, 95.one% agreement was observed (95% CI, 89.eight% to 100.0%; P < .001). This demonstrates a high level of agreement betwixt raters and provides boosted confidence in the prototype assay arroyo.
Discussion
The increased utilize of odour detection canines in environments with potential biological contamination necessitates the development of effective decontamination protocols compatible with routine use in the field. While previous work in this loonshit has shown that methods like loftier-force per unit area washing can be effective at cleaning fifty-fifty difficult-to-decontaminate porous surfaces, information technology is limited in its fieldability, and has the potential for unintentional aerosolization of contaminated particulates.12,thirteen For these reasons, this written report focuses on a flexible and logistically feasible wipe-based protocol.
Results show that this strategy is indeed effective, as an average of 86% of the Glo Germ proxy contaminant was removed from all tested surfaces, regardless of the solution used. The disinfectant solutions, which included a 0.5% chlorhexidine solution, 70% isopropyl alcohol, and Nolvasan scrub, were near effective, reducing Glo Germ fluorescence by approximately 91%. Due to the gummy residue left by the Nolvasan scrub, however, the chlorhexidine and isopropyl solutions appear to be the most practical candidates for routine decontamination. While the 70% isopropyl alcohol used in this study is designated for man apply only, veterinarian options are available and would be preferred.37
During testing, researchers observed that certain porous surfaces, including tennis balls, leather leashes, and fur, were more challenging to decontaminate. This finding is consistent with other studies and emphasizes the need for operators to carefully consider whether such materials should be decontaminated after working in potentially contaminating environments, or if they should be simply discarded and replaced.12,xiii,38 In the case of tennis balls, for case, the take chances of incomplete decontamination may outweigh the toll of replacing the detail at the beginning of each working shift. For items similar the currently fielded leather leashes, where financial constraints brand daily replacement impractical, it may be prudent to consider alternate nonporous materials that are more easily decontaminated.
Conclusion
While findings from this study provide preliminary data to inform updated decontamination protocols, follow-on studies are necessary to decide if the reduction of superficial contamination observed here correlates with the removal and/or inactivation of actual infectious agents. The authors are currently completing experiments with live virus to directly address this question. Additional research must also be performed using various working canine breeds to clinch these protocols yield like results on fur from living animals. Taken together, this body of work will assist ascertain the decontamination frequency and strategy (or strategies) best suited for piece of work in the field, ensuring health security for working canines, their handlers, and the populations they serve to protect.
Acknowledgments
The authors would like to give thanks Dr. Erin Perry, Dr. Ben Tham, F. Connor Sage, Terrence J. Garcia, Celina J. Shih, and the Section of Homeland Security Science and Applied science for their contributions to this commodity.
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Source: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8739844/
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